ONG Stichting Bakens Verzet (Une Autre Voie), 1018 AM Amsterdam, Pays Bas.
01. Cours
e-learning : Diplôme de Développement Intégré (Dip. Dév.Int)
Édition
15: 27 Décembre, 2010
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Les aspects
économiques.
Sect. 3 : L’analyse des coûts et
des bénéfices. [17 heures]
01. Introduction. (02 heures)
02. Les investissements faits.(02 heures)
03. Les résultats détaillés. (02 heures)
04. Le cadre logique : L’efficience et
l’efficacité. (02 heures)
05. Les frais de gestion.(02 heures)
06.Analyse des coûts et des bénéfices :
introduction. (02 heures)
07. Analyse des coûts et des bénéfices : détails. (02
heures)
08. Traité de Kyoto : analyse des possibilités de
financement. (Additionnel – file en anglais).
Section 3 rapport : 03
heures.
Sect. 3 : L’analyse des coûts et
des bénéfices. [17 heures]
08. Traité de Kyoto : analyse des possibilités de
financement. (Additionnel – file en anglais).
This analysis has ten sections:
SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION.
SECTION
2. POTENTIAL AREAS OF APPLICATION
OF CDM MECHANISMS TO INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS.
SECTION
3. SMALL SCALE CDM ACTIVITIES.
SECTION
4. PROGRAMMES OF ACTIVITIES.
SECTION 5. SELECTION OF
THE CDM meTHODLOGIES FOR THE APPLICATIONS LISTED IN SECTION 2.
SECTION
6. INFORMATION SPECIFIC TO AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION (AR)
METHODOLOGIES SPECIFICALLY APPLICABLE TO INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS.
SECTION
7. NOTES SPECIFIC TO THE ROLE OF BAMBOO IN
AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION PROJECTS.
SECTION
8. CDM FUNDING INDICATIONS FOR THE SELECTED
METHODOLOGIES.
SECTION
4. GENERAL APPLICATION PROCEDURES.
SECTION
5. SOME MATERIAL SPECIFIC TO SMALL
CDM COOK-STOVE INITIATIVES.
SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION.
Introduction.
A
"certified emission reduction" or "CER" is a unit
representing one ton of carbon dioxide-equivalent (CO2-e)
sequestered or abated, using global warming potentials
defined by 2/CP.3. CERs are issued to project participants in CDM
projects under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol and the CDM modalities and
procedures (3/CMP.1, Annex, paragraph 1(b)).The
value of CERs varies sharply over time. Prices on 14th November 2010
were about € 14 per
ton.
The main source for
information on the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is the CDM website of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCC). Many will find the Rulebook : Clean Development Mechanisms Rules, Practices and
Procedures developed by Baker and McKenzie for the www.cdmrulebook.org website easier to
navigate. The Baker and McKenzie
rulebook includes an A-Z index of key words which is easy to consult. The www.cdmrulebook.org
site is not, however, complete. For instance, it says what a Designated
Operational Entity (DOE) is, but does not provide a list of approved DOEs. The list of DOEs can instead be found at the
UNFCCC site. There are currently 48 of them. Most of them are based in
industrialised countries, though there are some in “emerging” countries too.
Designated Operational Entities (DOEs) intermediate between the people
proposing a project and the CDM Executive Board which approves it. They
evaluate and validate initial project applications and carry out periodic
inspection and certification activities ensuring on-going compliance. Most of
these DOEs are large international institutions which in practice are
given (hold) a virtual licence to complicate or facilitate procedures. Project
proponents are placed at their mercy. Furthermore, if the issuing organ (in the case of
CDM projects, the Executive Board) makes an arbitrary decision either with
regard to registration or to issuance of certificates, applicants have no
remedy. In December 2010 there was still
no CDM appellate body
to handle appeals against the decisions of the CDM Executive
Board. A preliminary discussion on this issue took place during the UNFCCC meeting
in Cancun (
Recently introduced
Programmes of Activities (PoA) appear to offer greater potential for CDM
financing of integrated development projects in developing countries. A programme of activities defines parameters
for CDM activities to be included in the programme. It is a sort of convention.
Once registered by the CDM Executive Board, the PoA applies to activities
brought under it from time to time without the need for project by project
applications. For more information refer to : Beaurain F., Schmidt-Traub
G, Developing CDM Programmes of
Activities : A Guidebook, South Pole Carbon Asset Management Ltd,
Zurich, 2010. “As of November 2010, after EB meeting
Click
here to see how this might work on a sub-continental
scale in developing countries.
In the example, a sub-regional authority is the “owner” of the Programme
of Activities which form an integrated part of its development policy. The
programme is run by a consortium of leading NGOs represented throughout the
sub-region. This consortium is responsible for the operation of the programme
and for the sale of CER emission certificates. On behalf of the project owner
it collects CER emission funds and distributes them to the cooperative
responsible for each individual project. Its activities are controlled and
audited by a DOE (Designated Operating Entity) which acts on behalf of the CDM
Executive Board (EB).
Limitations
of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) applications under the
CDM projects are used to replace
or improve on current
energy consumption. If there is no current energy consumption it cannot be
replaced or reduced. This means that industrialised countries currently using
50 times more energy per inhabitant are offered much better opportunities under
the protocol than least developed countries where very little energy is used.
There is for the time being no practical limit to the amount of energy savings
possible from the introduction of alternative energy sources in industrialised
and even larger emerging countries. In contrast, the introduction of solar home
systems in least developed countries is covered under the Kyoto Protocol only
for the replacement of, for example, a few kerosene lamps and batteries. This
means the entire CDM mechanism is (deliberately) biased to the advantage of the
industrialised countries, though it is unlikely this will ever be openly
admitted.
The use of the
The CDM system is business-
rather than development-oriented. With the exception of sectors 14 and 15, it
is not clear how projects for the improvement of the quality of life of the poor in developing
countries are intended to fit into it. The industrial bias built into the 15
nominated sectors speaks for itself :
01. Energy industries.
02. Energy distribution.
03. Energy demand.
04. Manufacturing
industries.
05. Chemical industries.
06. Construction.
07. Transport.
08. Mining/mineral
production.
09. Metal production.
10. Fugitive emissions from
fuels (solid, oil, and gas).
11. Fugitive emissions from
production and consumption of halocarbons and sulphur hexafluoride.
12. Solvent use.
13. Waste handling and
disposal.
14. Afforestation and
reforestation.
15. Agriculture.
The CDM system is also
fraud-sensitive :
“[Europol states that] Carbon credit carousel fraud in
the EU ETS resulted in losses of about 5 billion Euros in 2008-2009 and is
estimated to account for 90% of carbon trading volume in some countries.”
(Silverstein D., A method to finance a global
climate fund with a harmonized carbon tax”,
One theoretical advantage for projects in the least developed countries (LDCs) (according to their status on the date of the publication of the request for issuance) is that LDCs were exempted from the payment of registration and adaptation fees at the third meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP) (2/CMP.3 par. 31) . Many of those countries have not been involved in CDM projects under the Kyoto Protocol at all. Other compliance and monitoring costs are still, however, payable.
SECTION 2. POTential areas of
application of CDM mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol to integrated
development projects.
CDM applications under the Kyoto
Protocol are organised by sector and sub-type or purpose. The 15 sectors are
listed in section 1 above. Since integrated development projects involve a wide
range of services and activities, CDM applications can in principle be made
under several sectors and for several purposes, provided doubling-up of
benefits is carefully avoided. CDM applications apply only to the replacement
or improvement of existing energy use and conservation
measures which increase carbon sinks. The known long-standing degradation
of forested areas in most developing countries offers prospects for
afforestation and reforestation projects there. These activities may
take place in forests and natural reserves, built-up areas, grass- and
croplands, wetlands, marginal lands, and areas unable to support bio-mass.
These possibilities are included in items 02, 03, 04, 05, 06 and 07 below.
Provided sufficient water is available (integrated development projects to not
cover irrigation projects), afforestation and reforestation activities in a
given integrated development project area may take place in any one or any
combination of the described land-use types.
01. (Small scale) CO2 savings through the reduced use of biomass for cooking purposes through the introduction of improved stoves. (Sector 3. Energy demand ?)
02. (Small scale)
afforestation and/or reforestation projects. Recovery of
forest lands and natural parks and reserves using traditional species and/or
bamboo and/or other species. (Sector 14 -
Afforestation and reforestation.)
03. (Small scale)
afforestation and/or reforestation projects. Afforestation activities in
settlements as defined
Distributed planting of fruit and nut trees and similar. (Sector 14 - Afforestation and reforestation.)
04. (Small scale)
afforestation and/or reforestation projects. Small-scale
agro-forestry activities – distributed bamboo plantations, palms, soap-nuts and
jatropha on grasslands and croplands. (Sector 14 -
Afforestation and reforestation.)
05. (Small scale)
afforestation and/or reforestation projects. Small-scale
agro-forestry activities – distributed plantations for practical purposes for
local use, including but not limited to bamboo, palms, soap-nuts and jatropha.
(Sector 14. (Small scale) afforestation
and reforestation.) on marginal lands.
06. (Small scale)
afforestation and/or reforestation projects on wetlands using traditional
species. (Sector 14 - Afforestation and reforestation.)
07. (Small scale)
afforestation and/or reforestation projects on lands having low inherent
potential to support living biomass. (Sector 14 -
Afforestation and reforestation.)
08. (Small scale) use of
renewable biomass instead of non-renewable biomass with improved cook stoves. (Sector 1. Energy industries ?)
09. (Small scale) recycling
of human waste to avoid the use of industrial fertilisers. (Sector
13. Waste handling and disposal ?)
10. (Small-scale) methane
recovery from animal waste for cooking and lighting purposes in pastoralist
areas. (Sector 13 – Waste handling and disposal ?)
11. (Small scale)
replacement of kerosene lamps incandescent light bulbs and of the use of
throw-away batteries by renewable energy sources (wind, solar and/or renewable
bio-mass including but not limited to plant oil, gasification of biomass). (Sector 3. Energy demand ?)
12. (Small-scale)
replacement of non-renewable electrical and diesel-driven sources for
mechanical equipment such as pumps and mills and, where applicable, pubic
lighting systems. (Sector 1- 01. Energy industries ?)
13. (Small scale) local
recycling and recovery of materials from solid wastes, including but not
limited to plastics. (Sector 13. Waste handling and disposal ?)
Different methodologies are
used for different sectors and purposes. Each methodology is unique to the
sector it is listed under. Click here to see which methodologies are linked with which sectors. Since
an activity may fall under any one of several sectors, there may be more than
one methodology which can be applied to it.
Integrated development
projects involve many sectors and purposes. The choice of sector and of the
most suitable methodologies within the sector is complex. In some cases an application
for the approval of a new combination system might turn out to be the best
option as new methodologies can also be submitted to the CDM Executive Board
for approval. The CDM methodologies currently available are described in the CDM Methodology Booklet issued by the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC),
SECTION
3. SMALL SCALE CDM ACTIVITIES.
Small-scale CDM project
activities.
Small-scale CDM project
activities are classed in three groups:
I : Renewable project activities with maximum
output capacity up to 15 MW or equivalent.
II : Energy
efficiency improvements which reduce energy consumption involving emissions
of up to 60 gigawatt hours per year.
III: Other activities reducing
emissions which directly emit less than 60 kilotonnes of CO2, with savings up
to 15 kilotonnes of CO2. Calculation procedures for group III projects
have been simplified.
Individual small-scale
activities under integrated development projects may fall under all three
groups or any combination of them. Common sense would indicate that where
possible they be included under group III where procedures are simplified. The
fact that more small-scale activities so have taken place under groups I and II
than under group III may be linked to the history of the development of the CDM
mechanism and the relatively recent introduction of simplified procedures. For
instance, there is still no specific simplified group III methodology for
bio-mass briquettes ( covered under methodology AMS-I-E below) and the use of
improved stoves (see AMS-II-G), except for methodologies AMS-III-D, AMS-III-F,
and AMS-III-R which are all related to the capture of methane gas.
Type III small-scale
methodologies have been selected in Section 4 below wherever practicable.
Advantages of registration as small-scale projects.
The advantages of small-scale
projects are that they :
- Can be bundled (several
projects presented as one) using the form for submission of bundled
small-scale project activities (CDM-SSC-Bundle).
- Use the “simplified” CDM-SSC-PDD (version 03 – 22
December 2006) project design document. A guideline for
the drafting of this document is available.
- Use “simplified” baseline
methodologies.
- New baseline methodologies
can be also submitted following the “simplified” monitoring plans for:
a) the collection and
archiving of data needed to estimate or
measure anthropogenic emissions by sources of greenhouse gases occurring within
the project boundary during the crediting period as specified in appendix B for
the relevant project category;
b) the determination of the
baseline of anthropogenic emissions by sources of greenhouse gases occurring
within the project boundary during the crediting period, as specified in
appendix B for the relevant project category;
c) the
calculation of the reductions of anthropogenic emissions by sources by the
proposed small-scale CDM project activity, and for leakage effects, in
accordance with provisions of appendix B for the relevant project category
(4/CMP.1, Annex II, paragraph 32).
- Use the same designated operational entity (DOE) for
initial validation, and for subsequent verification and certification. For
large-scale projects two different DOEs are needed.
Despite these advantages,
the complexity of the preparation and management of small-scale CDM projects
means they too are time-consuming and expensive and need well-qualified
personnel. Initial investment costs and on-going compliance costs always need
to be carefully weighed against the potential financial benefits. It may take
two years, or even more, for
project approval and several more years before CER certificates
are actually made available for trading. This means that the high set-up costs
have to be paid in advance without any guarantee the application will be
accepted.
SECTION
4. PROGRAMMES OF ACTIVITIES.
Recently introduced Programmes
of Activities (PoA) appear to offer greater potential for CDM financing of
integrated development projects in developing countries. A programme of activities defines parameters
for CDM activities to be included in the programme. It is a sort of convention.
Once registered by the CDM Executive Board, the PoA applies to activities
brought under it from time to time without the need for project by project
applications. For more information refer to : Beaurain F., Schmidt-Traub G, Developing CDM Programmes of
Activities : A Guidebook, South Pole Carbon Asset Management Ltd,
Zurich, 2010.
Click
here to see a drawing showing how this might work on a
sub-continental scale in developing countries. In the example, a sub-regional authority is
the “owner” of the Programme of Activities which form an integrated part of its
regional development policy. The programme is run by a consortium of leading
NGOs represented throughout the sub-region. This consortium is responsible for
the operation of the programme and for the sale of CER emission certificates.
On behalf of the project owner it collects CER emission funds and distributes
them to the cooperatives responsible for each individual project. Its
activities are controlled and audited by a DOE (Designated Operating Entity)
which acts on behalf of the CDM Executive Board (EB).
SECTION 5. SELECTION OF THE CDM meTHODLOGIES FOR THE
APPLICATIONS LISTED IN SECTION 2.
01. CO2 savings through the
reduced use of non-renewable biomass for cooking purposes through the
introduction of improved stoves.
CO2
savings through the reduced use of non-renewable biomass for cooking purposes
through the introduction of improved stoves. ( Application
01 : Sector 3. Energy demand ? Possible
tool indication : Power Consumption, sublevel “Various household installations”,
sub-type “Stoves”, small-scale applications, methodologies AMS-II-G.(Version 2) or AMS-I-C. Of these, AMS-II-G.(Version
2 ) is
compatible with Sector 3. AMS-I-C is compatible with sector 1 – energy
industries) AMS-I-C refers to electricity generation and may therefore be
excluded. AMS-II-G refers to energy efficient measures in thermal applications
of biomass. So the preferred methodology appears to be AMS-II-G.(Version
2). This
application my be supplemented by application 08
below. Doubling up with application 08 should be carefully avoided. A CDM application in 2009 on biomass residues as the fuel
source for individual stoves complete with proposed new base-line and
monitoring methodologies relates to an actual project in
02. Recovery of forest lands
and natural parks and reserves using traditional species and/or bamboo and/or
other species.
(Application
02. Sector 14 - Afforestation and reforestation.) The preferred methodology is AR-AMS-0004 , version 2, 11 June, 2009 - Approved simplified baseline and monitoring
methodology for small-scale agroforestry - afforestation and reforestation project activities under the clean
development mechanism. It would be used for forest recovery (afforestation or reforestation)
with preferably with trees natural to each project area. Bamboo and/or other
plantations may also be cultivated. This methodology is not included in the Tool for Selecting CDM Methodologies and Technologies.
The prescribed parameters
are:
“(a) Project activities are
not implemented on grasslands;
“(b) Project activities lead to establishment of
forest (according to area, height and crown cover thresholds reported to the EB
by the host Party) and allow for continuation or introduction of a cropping
regime;
“(c) The pre-project crown cover of trees within the
project boundary is less than 20% of the threshold for crown cover reported to
the EB by the host Party;
“(d) If there is a decrease in the area cultivated with crops
attributable to implementation of the project activity then the decrease is not
more than 20% of the total area cultivated with crops at the start of the
project.”
03. Afforestation activities
in settlements as defined
Distributed planting of fruit and nut trees and similar.
Afforestation in settlements as defined in 2006 IPCC Guidelines for
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, and Good Practice Guidance for Land Use,
Land-Use Change and Forestry (IPCC 2003), may include all developed land i.e.,
residential, transportation, commercial, and production (commercial,
manufacturing)infrastructure of any size, unless it is already included under
other land-use categories. The small-scale methodology AR-AMS-2 (version 2, 17 October 2008)
falls under sector 14 “Afforestation and reforestation” but is not included in
the Tool for Selecting CDM
Methodologies and Technologies.
The prescribed
parameters are:
04. Small-scale
agro-forestry activities – such as distributed bamboo plantations, palms,
soap-nuts and jatropha on grasslands and croplands.
Afforestation
and/or reforestation projects. Small-scale agro-forestry activities including but
not limited to distributed bamboo, palm, soap-nut, and jatropha plantations on
grasslands and croplands. (Sector 14 - Afforestation and
reforestation. Methodology AR-AMS-0001
“Simplified baseline and monitoring methodologies for small-scale
A/R CDM project activities implemented on grasslands or croplands with limited
displacement of pre-project activities.” Possible
tool indication : (Sector 14 – Afforestation and
Reforestation - sublevel forests - sub-type either afforestation or
reforestation.
The applicable parameters are :
“(a)
Project activities are implemented on grasslands or croplands;
“(b) Project activities are
implemented on lands where the area of the cropland within the project boundary
displaced due to the project activity is less than 50 per cent of the total
project area;
“(c) Project activities are
implemented on lands where the number of displaced grazing animals is less than
50 per cent of the average grazing capacity of the project area;
“(d) Project activities are
implemented on lands where ≤ 10% of the total surface project area is
disturbed as result of soil preparation for planting.”
05
Small-scale agro-forestry activities – distributed plantations for practical
purposes for local use, including but not limited to bamboo, palms, soap-nuts
and jatropha on marginal lands.
Afforestation
and/or reforestation projects. Small-scale agro-forestry
activities on marginal lands – distributed plantations for practical purposes
for local use, including but not limited to bamboo, palms, soap-nuts and
jatropha. (Sector 14 - Afforestation and
reforestation.). The preferred methodology is AR-AMS-0004 , version 2, 11 June, 2009 – which is
intended for forest recovery (afforestation or reforestation) including but not
limited to traditional trees and/or bamboo
This methodology is not included in the
Tool for Selecting CDM Methodologies and Technologies.
The prescribed parameters
are:
“(a) Project activities are
not implemented on grasslands;
“(b) Project activities lead to establishment of
forest (according to area, height and crown cover thresholds reported to the EB
by the host Party) and allow for continuation or introduction of a cropping
regime;
“(c) The pre-project crown cover of trees within the
project boundary is less than 20% of the threshold for crown cover reported to
the EB by the host Party;
“(d) If there is a decrease in the area cultivated with crops
attributable to implementation of the project activity then the decrease is not
more than 20% of the total area cultivated with crops at the start of the
project.”
06. Afforestation and/or
reforestation projects on wetlands using traditional species.
Afforestation
and/or reforestation projects on wetlands. (Sector 14 -
Afforestation and reforestation.) AR AMS-003,
Version 1, 14
December 2007. Simplified baseline and monitoring methodology for small scale
CDM afforestation and reforestation project activities implemented on wetlands.
Possible tool indication : (Sector 14 – Afforestation and Reforestation-sublevel forests, sub-type
mangroves. Applications will apply to mangroves in mangrove swamps. Other
traditional species will be used according to the bio-spheres involves.
07 Afforestation and/or reforestation
projects on lands having low inherent potential to support living biomass.
Afforestation
and/or reforestation projects on lands having low inherent potential to support
living biomass. (Sector 14 - Afforestation and reforestation).
AR-AMS-0005 (Version 2, 8
April 2009) falls under sector 14 “Afforestation and/or
reforestation” but is not included in the Tool for Selecting CDM
Methodologies and Technologies. This methodology can be used as
foreseen in applications 4, 5, 6, and 7 where project activities are
implemented on areas having low inherent potential to support living biomass
without human intervention.
The project activities shall
be implemented on areas listed in (i) to (iv) below.
The project participants (PPs) shall provide evidence/data to support that the
selected project sites meet the local/national criteria for these categories
using information from verifiable sources and/or expert opinion as appropriate:
(iii) Contaminated or mine spoils lands;
(iv) Highly alkaline or
saline soils.
08. Use of renewable biomass
instead of non-renewable biomass with improved cook stoves.
Use of
renewable biomass instead of non-renewable biomass with improved cook stoves. (Application
3. Sector 1. Energy
industries? Possible tool indication : “Waste”, sublevel “Biomass”,
sub-type “Biomass briquettes”, small-scale applications, methodologies AMS-I-C
or AMS-III-B.) The more common application of the two methodologies is AMS-I-C.
Both methodologies are compatible with Sector 1). AMS-I-C refers to thermal
energy using renewable energy sources instead of fossil based ones. AMS-III-B
refers to switching of fossil fuels. Neither of these appears applicable to
integrated development projects. Methodology AMS-I-E (which falls under the
sub-type “manure”) refers to a switch from non-renewable biomass to renewable
biomass for thermal applications by the user. Integrated development projects
provide for the local production of mini-briquettes made from
renewable biomass wastes and residues supplemented as necessary by purpose-grown
renewable crops, rather than to manure. So the most appropriate technology
appears to be Sector 1. Energy industries ? Possible
tool indication
: “Renewable Energy”, sublevel “Biomass”, sub-type “Manure”, small-scale
applications, methodology AMS-I-E, using renewable bio-mass instead of manure.
This application
supplements application 01 above. Assuming 65% of non-renewable
biomass is saved under application 1 above, the remaining 35% of biomass
incorporated in the locally produced mini-briquettes under application 08 must
be renewable and it must be proved that the remaining 35% of biomass being
substituted by the mini-briquettes is non-renewable.
09. Recycling of human waste
to avoid the use of industrial fertilisers.
(Application
09. Sector 13. Waste handling and disposal ? Possible tool indication : “Waste”, sublevel “Liquid waste”, sub-type “Waste water”, small-scale
applications, methodologies AMS-III-I, or
AMS-III-H, or AMS-III-F, or AMS
III-D, or AMS-I-F, or AMS-I-D, or AMS-I-C, or AMS-I-A. Of these the most common
applications in descending order are AMS-III-H, AMS-I-D, and AMS-I-C.
Methodologies AMS-I-A, AMS-I-C, AMS-I-D and AMS-I-F are all compatible with
sector 1, energy industries). Methodology AMS-III-D is compatible with Sector
15 (Agriculture). Methodologies AMS-III-I, AMS-III-H, and AMS-III-F are all
compatible with sector 13 - waste handling. Of these, AMS-III-I refers to
substitution of anaerobic systems with aerobic ones. AMS-III-H refers to
methane recovery in wastewater treatment. Application 09 does not refer to
methane recovery (AMS-III-H), nor does it refer to the “substitution of an
anaerobic system”. AMS-III-F on the other hand refers to controlled biological
treatment of organic matter by aerobic composting of the biomass and proper
soil application of the compost. The faecal component of human waste is
composted aerobically then applied as proper soil as provided in AMS-III-F. The
urine component of human waste is mixed with grey water to form liquid
fertiliser comprising 1 part of urine to 10 parts of grey water and applied
directly for food production purposes. Imported industrial fertiliser is
thereby substituted by locally produced liquid fertiliser, which would
otherwise have been wasted. The Tool for Selecting CDM
Methodologies and Technologies therefore appears to indicate
AMS-III-F as the best solution. However, AMS-III-Y seems to be more appropriate. Although the
second version of methodology AMS-III-Y dates back to 30th October
2009, it has not been included in the Tool for Selecting CDM
Methodologies and Technologies.
Without referring to
methodology AMS-III-F, the CDM Methodology Booklet actually provides a guideline
in its description of AMS-III-Y as follows :
“1. This methodology comprises technologies
and measures that avoid or reduce methane production from anaerobic wastewater
treatment systems and anaerobic manure management systems, through removal of
(volatile) solids from the wastewater or manure slurry stream. The separated
solids shall be further treated, used or disposed in a manner resulting in
lower methane emissions.
“2. The project activity does not recover and
combust biogas i.e., the baseline wastewater or manure treatment plant as well
as the project system are not equipped with methane recovery. Project
activities which recover and combust biogas from manure management systems
shall consider AMS-III.D or AMS-III.R. Project activities
which recover and combust biogas from wastewater treatment systems shall
consider AMS-III.H. Project activities that substitute anaerobic
wastewater treatment systems with aerobic wastewater treatment system shall
consider AMS-III.I.
“3. The technology for solids separation shall
be one of the below or a combination thereof so as to achieve a minimum dry
matter content of separated solids larger than 20%:
(a) A pre-separation phase of chemical
treatment by mixing flocculants with the wastewater, adopted to improve the
efficiency of the subsequent mechanical solid liquid separation process;
(b) Mechanical solid/liquid separation
technologies (e.g., stationary, vibrating or rotating screens, centrifuges,
hydrocyclones, press systems/screws), operated inline with the inflowing
freshly generated wastewater or slurry manure stream so as to avoid stagnation;
(c) Thermal treatment technologies that
evaporate water content from the waste stream, either releasing vapour to the
atmosphere or condensing it into a liquid fraction (condensate) containing
negligible volatile solids or COD load, resulting in a solid fraction. Examples
include evaporation and spray drying technologies.”
The technical solution applied in integrated
development projects is b) mechanical solid/liquid separation through the use
of urine diversion in toilets.
10. Methane recovery from animal
waste for cooking and lighting purposes in pastoralist areas.
Small-scale methane
recovery from animal waste for lighting purposes and electricity generation in
pastoralist areas. The resultant energy from
this application can also be used for cooking purposes under
: Sector 3. Energy demand ? Possible tool indication : Power Consumption, sublevel “Various household
installations”, sub-type “Stoves”, small-scale applications, methodology
AMS-II-G as provided in application 01
above. Doubling-up will cause loss of income to project beneficiaries. Common
sense therefore suggests that energy from the application be used for lighting
purposes and/or for small scale electricity generation. If it is used for
lighting purposes, it can be brought under (Sector 1 - Energy industries ? Possible tool indication : Power
Consumption, sublevel “Various household installations”, sub-type “Lighting”,
small-scale applications, methodologies AMS-II-J or AMS-II-C or AMS-I-A or the
new methodology AMS-III-AR). AMS-II-C refers to adoption of energy-efficient
appliances. AMS-II-J applies specifically to the adoption of compact
fluorescent lamps. AMS-I-A refers to small-scale stand-alone or mini-grid
electricity generation by the user with installed capacity up to 15MW with emissions reductions per renewable energy based
lighting system is less than 5 tonnes of CO2 equivalent a year and where it can
be shown that fossil fuel would have been used in the absence of the project
activity. The new methodology AMS-III-AR (from 26th
November 2010) applies to the adoption of LED lamps. It refers to the lighting technology itself, and would
be included under application 11 below. AMS-I-A can be used for the rest of the
methane produced in application 11 to substitute other existing electricity/power
generation activities. The challenge is to find alternative existing uses of
non-renewable energy within each integrated development area. Beneficiaries may
also choose to use the gas for new energy uses, but this would not qualify for
CDM funding. They may prefer to use their methane gas to replace the
mini-briquettes for stoves under application 01 above. As already stated, this
would, however, lead to a drainage of CDM resources.
11. Replacement of kerosene
lamps, incandescent light bulbs, and of the use of throw-away batteries by
renewable energy sources (wind, solar and/or renewable bio-mass including but
not limited to plant oil, gasification of biomass).
Replacement of kerosene lamps and of the use
of throw-away batteries by renewable energy sources (wind, solar and/or
renewable bio-mass including but not limited to plant oil, gasification of
biomass). (Sector 3 - Energy demand ? Possible tool indication :
Power Consumption, sublevel “Various household installations”, sub-type “Lighting”,
small-scale applications, methodologies AMS-II-J or AMS-II-C or AMS-I-A.
AMS-I-A is compatible with sector 1 (energy industries). AMS-I-A refers to
small-scale stand-alone or mini-grid electricity generation by the user with
installed capacity up to 15MW with
emissions reductions per renewable energy based lighting system is less than 5
tonnes of CO2 equivalent a year and where it can be shown that fossil fuel
would have been used in the absence of the project activity. Methodologies AMS-II-C and AMS-II-J both conform to Sector 3. AMS-II-C
refers to adoption of energy-efficient appliances. AMS-II-J applies
specifically to the adoption of compact fluorescent lamps. However it is a new
methodology, AMS-III-AR (introduced 26th November, 2010, which applies to the
adoption of LED lamps, which appears to offer the best solution. It is not
included in the Tool for Selecting CDM Methodologies and
Technologies. Methodologies AMS-II-C, AMS-II-J, and AMS-III-AR are all coupled to energy
savings inherent in the introduction of lighting technology, not to the
source of energy. The highest
energy savings with the greatest flexibility of use are given by the adoption
of LED lights, so AMS-III-R
appears to be the preferred methodology. The substantially higher
initial investment cost of the lamps is directly recovered by the reduction in
the size of the alternative energy power source installed.
12. Replacement of non-renewable
electrical and diesel-driven sources for mechanical equipment such as pumps and
mills and, where applicable, pubic lighting systems.
Replacement
of non-renewable electrical and diesel-driven sources for mechanical equipment
such as pumps and mills and, where applicable, pubic lighting systems. (Sector 1, Energy industries ? Possible tool indication : “Renewable Energy”,
sublevel “Solar”, subtype “Solar PV”, small-scale applications, AMS-I-D or
AMS-I-A; or sublevel “Wind”, subtype “Wind”, small-scale applications, AMS-I-F,
or AMS-I-D or AMS-I-A. All
three methodologies are compatible with Sector 1). By far the
most common methodology
of the three, AMS-I-D, applies only to alternative energy supply
to a regional or national grid and is therefore not usually applicable in
integrated development projects. AMS-I-F refers to substitution of electricity
from a national or regional grid, from a fossil-fuelled captive power plant or
from a carbon intensive mini-grid. AMS-I-A refers to small-scale stand-alone or
mini-grid electricity generation by the user.
Methodology AMS-I-A is described in the CDM Methodology Booklet as follows :
“This category comprises renewable electricity
generation units that supply individual households/users or groups of
households/users included in the project boundary. The applicability is limited
to individual households and users that do not have a grid connection except
when;
“(a) A group of households or users are supplied
electricity through a standalone minigrid powered by renewable energy
generation unit(s) where the capacity of the generating units does not exceed
15 MW (i.e., the sum of installed capacities of all renewable energy generators
connected to the mini-grid is less than 15 MW) e.g., a community based
stand-alone off-the-grid renewable electricity systems; or
“(b) The emissions reduction per renewable energy
based lighting system is less than 5 tonnes of CO2e a year and where it can be
shown that fossil fuel would have been used in the absence of the project
activity by;
(i) A representative sample survey (90% confidence
interval, ±10% error margin) of target households; or
(ii) Official statistics from the host country
government agencies.
“The renewable energy generation units include technologies such as
solar, hydro, wind, biomass gasification and other technologies that produce
electricity all of which is used on-site/locally by the user, e.g., solar home
systems, wind battery chargers . The renewable generating units may be new
installations (
Since AMS-I-A has already
been used for applications relating to both wind and solar energy and to
biomass applications for electricity generation including but not limited to
palm oil and manures, this appears to be the most flexible methodology for
application 12.
13. Local recycling and
recovery of materials from solid wastes, including but not limited to plastics.
Small scale local recycling
and recovery of materials from solid wastes, including but not limited to
plastics, is a feature of integrated development projects. Recovery and
recycling of plastics materials is covered under methodology AMS-III-AJ. This
methodology is not included in the Tool for Selecting CDM
Methodologies and Technologies. It comprises activities for recovery
and recycling of high density polyethylene (HDPE) and low density
polyethylene(LDPE) materials in municipal solid wastes to process them into
intermediate or finished products e.g., plastic resin to displace production of
virgin HDPE and LDPE materials in dedicated facilities thereby resulting energy
savings and emission reduction. Mechanical Recycling: Physical/mechanical
processes are defined as those by which recyclable materials e.g., HDPE and
LDPE plastics are obtained from municipal solid waste by way of separation,
cleaning and compaction/packing for further processing in order to produce
intermediate/finished products to substitute virgin raw materials in an
industrial production chain. The process may be accomplished manually and/or
using mechanical equipment including but not limited to one or more of the
following measures: washing of the separated LDPE and HDPE materials with hot
water, drying, compaction, shredding and pelletizing. Recycling facility is
(are) facility (ies) where the recyclables in the municipal solid waste
collected are sorted, classified and prepared into marketable commodities for
processing/manufacturing in single or multiple locations. The term Processing/Manufacturing facility includes industrial processes to transform recyclable materials
obtained from recycling facility into intermediate or finished products e.g.,
plastic resin.
Methodology AMS-III-X relates
to the recovery of HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) from the recycling of
refrigerators. Until now, AMS-III-AJ is the
only other methodology covering energy savings through the recycling of non-organic
solid waste products.
SECTION
6. INFORMATION
SPECIFIC TO
AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION (AR) METHODOLOGIES SPECIFICALLY
APPLICABLE TO INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS.
A general reference.
A good up-to-date reference
to Afforestation and Reforestation (AR) projects is Building Forest Carbon Projects : A Step-by-Step Guide, by J.Olander and
J.Ebeling, published by Forest-Trends and the Katoomba Group,
December 2010. This work includes specific aspect by aspect information boxes
with references to the leading resources on the aspect in question.
Key factors which
should always be borne in mind are that project areas must be under the control
of the project proponent(s) and that a given dimension of at least 10.000 to
20.000 tonnes of CO2 per year is needed to
offset the high costs of project preparation, validation, and monitoring.
Pre-implementation costs can be € 100.000-250.000 and more; preparation of a
methodology for €
20.000-75.000 and more; each periodic verification event between
€ 15.000-40.000 and more. Most of these
funds are absorbed by nominated DOEs (auditors) and large international
(especially financial) institutions which in practice hold a virtual licence to
complicate or facilitate procedures. Project proponents are placed at their
mercy. If the issuing organ
(in the case of CDM projects, the Executive Board) makes an
arbitrary decision either with regard to registration or to issuance of
certificates, project proponents have no remedy. In December 2010 there was still no CDM
appellate body to
handle appeals against the decisions of the CDM Executive Board. A preliminary
discussion on this issue took place during the UNFCCC meeting in Cancun (
Some definitions.
Each host country
must have adopted its own threshhold
parameters for forest coverage. If it has not done so, and some
countries have not, it is not possible to apply for CDM funding for an AR project there.
Some important
definitions (source : Decision -/CMP.1 Land use,
land-use change and forestry ) for afforestation and reforestation
projects are:
(a) “
(b)
“Afforestation” is the direct human-induced conversion of land that has not
been forested for a period of at least 50 years to forested land through
planting, seeding and/or the human-induced promotion of natural seed sources
(c) “Reforestation”
is the direct human-induced conversion of non-forested land to forested land
through planting, seeding and/or the human-induced promotion of natural seed
sources, on land that was forested but that has been converted to non-forested
land. For the first commitment period, reforestation activities will be limited
to reforestation occurring on those lands that did not contain forest on 31
December 1989
For the CDM mechanism, land
degradation is defined as a long-term decline in ecosystem function and
productivity and measured in terms of net primary productivity. All forms of
land degradation will ultimately lead to a reduction of soil fertility and
productivity. The general effect is reduced plant growth, which in turn causes
loss of protective soil cover and increased vulnerability of soil and
vegetation to further degradation (e.g. erosion).
The
importance of afforestation and reforestation in integrated development.
Afforestion and
reforestation activities are potentially very interesting for integrated
development projects. Many developing countries have vast areas of marginal
lands. The level of on-going degradation of existing woodlands is appalling
nearly everywhere. The main cause of this is the ruthless exploitation (theft)
of the existing timber resources of developing countries for the benefit of
large private commercial industrial interests. (See Block 1 of
, Section 1 of the course : 08. In depth :
Financial leakage : theft of resources. ) A second cause is degradation through
non-sustainable use of
woodlands for cooking fuel and charcoal production.
Greenhouse gas emissions
calculations for afforestation and reforestation projects are particularly
complex. Some of these projects have been highly criticised in international
circles. (Silverstein D.,
A method to finance a global
climate fund with a harmonized carbon tax”,
Biomass
default tables are given in annex 3A.1 of the Good Practice Guidance for
Land Use, Land-use Change and Forestry, published by the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) for the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Kamiyamaguchi, 2003.
Risks.
Long-term and permanent
certified emission reductions (ICER) and (CER) for afforestation and
reforestation projects are more vulnerable than those for other CDM sectors.
Natural disasters such as fire or floods may wipe out many years of investment
in a few hours. Where this happens, CDM funds received during the build-up of
the carbon sinks have to be repaid, because the carbon sinks have been lost.
This risk is in principle insurable, but the cost of insurance is very high and
represents financial leakage from the integrated development area where the AR
project is situated. Regional level project owners ( for
instance UEMOA in
Flowering of bamboo plants
should be avoided. Like other grasses, flowering may lead to the end of the
life cycle of some bamboo species and may lead to death of the plant and loss
of the sequestered carbon. However the average flowering interval of bamboo is in the region of 30
years.
Grazing in plantations is
another risk.
SECTION 7. NOTES
SPECIFIC TO THE ROLE OF BAMBOO IN AFFORESTATION AND REFORESTATION PROJECTS.
Introduction.
The use of bamboo for
afforestation and reforestation projects within the framework of integrated
development projects is important in the exploitation of CDM financing under
the
For information on the
potential of bamboo for
The annual productivity of
bamboo varies from 5 to 12 tonnes of biomass per hectare with some 2000-10000
shoots or culms. This corresponds to 9 to 22 tonnes of CO2. Small scale
projects cover up to 15000 tonnes of CO2 per year, involving a minimum of
Assuming a minimum area of
Bamboo cultivation
: water requirements.
A
disadvantage of bamboo cultivation is that it needs a good supply of water, which is
not always available in developing countries, especially in arid and semi-arid
areas.
For ecological reasons,
integrated development projects do not provide for industrial-level or
extensive irrigation schemes. This means that available rainwater in
water-scarce areas might need to be supplemented by labour-intensive hand-fed
drip irrigation, possibly through the recycling of urine and grey water from
households.
For more information on
water requirements of bamboo crops and their yearly distribution see Aspects of Bamboo Agronomy,
Kleinhenz B. and Midmore J., Academic Press,
Minimum annual rainfall
requirements for bamboo are indicated at
Careful analysis is
therefore needed before bamboo is adopted for CDM purposes in arid and
semi-arid areas as regular systematic provision of water by hand for say 5-10
thousand plants there is no joke, especially where net daily formal money
income from the work can be as low as Euro 2,50.
The
main features of bamboo.
“Bamboos provide raw
material for about 1500 known commercial products (Scurlock, Dayton et al.
2000). These range from handicrafts, such as woven baskets, to edible bamboo
shoots produced by about 200 species, to high value industrial goods, such as
pulp, paper and textiles, bio-fuels, charcoal, housing, panels, flooring and
furniture (Lobovikov, Paudel et al. 2007) ” [Lobovikov, M., Yiping, L., et al, The poor man’s carbon sink. Bamboo on climate change and poverty alleviation, cited above, p.13.]
Where they are used to produce durable goods, large percentages of
carbon savings are retained over a long term in the products. These activities
produce wide-spread employment possibilities. Note, however, that harvested wood products
are still not accepted for carbon accounting under the Kyoto Protocol, though
this issue is under discussion.
Flowering of bamboo plants
should be avoided. Like other grasses, flowering may be the end of the life
cycle of some bamboo species and may lead to death of the plant and loss of the
sequestered carbon. However the average flowering interval of bamboo is in the
region of 30 years.
Bamboo attributes for
climate change ” [
from Lobovikov, M., Yiping, L., et al, The poor man’s carbon sink.
Bamboo on climate change and poverty alleviation, cited above, Table
3, p.28]
|
Attribute |
Advantage |
Disadvantage |
|
|
|
|
|
Short rotation. |
Early returns; flexibility in land use and high
nutrient exports; high frequency of adaptation to climate change; consequence
of losing stand; smaller needed for sustained-yield operation; fits well into
crediting periods and tCER concept; fits capital intensity; short exposure to
risks. |
Lowers potential site-degrading
interventions, e.g. area compaction; no l-CERs. |
|
Continuous yields. |
Continuous economic returns, employment, labour
demand. |
|
|
Uneven-aged management . |
Multitude of products; no clear-cuts; less soil
nutrient losses and site deterioration;
weeding, herbicide use, establishment-stage risks. |
Difficult access to interior of
sympodial clumps; lower more difficult monitoring; thinning rules. |
|
Persisting rhizomes after culm harvest. |
Low decline in biomass and carbon store: easy
regeneration. |
May impede intermittent or
subsequent agricultural use. |
|
Plethora of products. |
Very high conversion efficiency, low conversion
losses; flexible
reaction to market fluctuations; continuous economic benefits along supply
chain from cottage industry to large-scale
industrial production. |
|
|
High appeal to consumers. |
High economic returns for bamboo products from
T-shirts to medicines to floor panels. |
|
|
Wood substitute. |
Reduces demand for timber. |
|
|
Establishment vegetatively . |
Cheap, easy, independent of seed years. |
|
|
Labour intensive. |
Creates employment or self- employments; sensitive
to rising wages at industrial scale capital extensive; employment for women,
youths. |
|
|
Light when air-dry. |
Manual skidding and transport, animal use, no soil
compaction. |
|
|
Possible integration into agro-forestry
schemes. |
Reduces slash and burn agriculture and/or
deforestation; opportunities for climate change adaptation; synergies
mitigation/adaptation. |
Allelopathy possible. |
|
May species, worldwide distribution. |
Adaptation to specific sites and climate change
possible; use as introduced species; overlap
with CDM countries. |
|
|
Rapid below-ground growth. |
Site reclamation and organic matter and carbon
accumulation. |
Possible invasiveness; slope failures
on dense root mass. |
|
C3 – plant. |
Increases production at higher CO2 concentrations . |
More sensitive to drought than C4
plants. |
|
Anatomy and physiology. |
Low ash-, silica- and water content as
bio-fuel. |
Challenging carbon monitoring;
emissions of methane and NMVOC;
cyanide content. |
SECTION
8. CDM FUNDING INDICATIONS FOR THE
SELECTED METHODOLOGIES.
The following indications are
purely indicative and subject to change on detailed calculation under each of
the methodologies applied.
01. CO2 savings through the
reduced use of non-renewable biomass for cooking purposes through the
introduction of improved stoves.
AMS-II-G.(Version 2). Energy efficiency measures in thermal application of non-renewable
biomass. Introduction of high-efficient thermal energy generation units utilizing
non-renewable biomass or retrofitting of existing units (e.g. complete
replacement of existing biomass fired cook stoves or ovens or dryers with
more-efficient appliances) reduces use of non-renewable biomass for combustion.
The idea is that renewable biomass savings cannot reduce greenhouse gas
emissions because the re-growing biomass reabsorbs them. This is the category
under which improved cooking stoves in integrated development projects best
fall. This methodology first introduced
in February 2008 was considered very complex to use. Version 2, introduced in
December 2009, is supposed to be easier to use. Its use would usually be
coupled with a switch from non-renewable biomass to renewable biomass. (See
also AMS-I-E). The methodology has been adopted in just four (unregistered)
small-scale projects without the issue of CER certificates.
For each integrated development project with
50.000 people and 10.000 families, there is a market for 20.000 to 30.000
improved cooking stoves. According to this methodology, the fraction of the
total annual biomass savings originating from non-renewable resources is
determined and multiplied by the net calorific value of the biomass actually
used and the emission factor of the fossil fuel that would most likely be used
in the project area in the absence of the project activity.
Supposing a saving of
The website of the
Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) provides a default
value for wood of 0,015 TJ [a terajoule = joule + 12 zeros] per ton and a default emission factor for
kerosene of 71,5 tons of CO2 per TJ. Calculations for integrated development
projects have to be expressed in kerosene equivalent as kerosene is
the fossil fuel that would most likely be used in the absence of wood in the
project areas.
Total
wood used in each project area is 36500 tons a year.
Assuming
savings of 65 % through the use of high efficiency stoves, the amount of wood
saved would be 23725 tons of wood.
23725
tons of wood x 0,015 TJ = 355,875 TJ.
355,875
TJ x 71.5 tons of CO2 equivalent of kerosene = 25545 tons of CO2.
Conclusion : 25545 tons of CO2 @ abut
Euro 14 per tonne {as at 14 November 2009] would produce Euro
It should be noted that CDM projects cover CO2
only. Voluntary credits (so-called VERs) can be obtained for CH4 (methane) and
N2O (Nitrous oxide) through the privately operated Gold Standard label, which is based in
02. Recovery of forest lands
and natural parks and reserves using traditional species and/or bamboo and/or
other species.
Each integrated
project area with 50.000 inhabitants is divided into about 250 local
development units and about 40 intermediate units.
01. They are suitable for a
new-generation cooperative multi-methodology Programme of Activities (PoA) initiative at sub-continental
level, without the need for business plans, promotional activities and similar.
They would form part of policy implementation at sub-regional level.
02. Actions covered by
integrated development projects are universally applicable in each clearly defined
project area. For example, installation of improved stoves in each project area takes place over 2-3 years, so
the so-called evolving base-line approach would need to be followed.
03. Formal money and
micro-credits are not required for the purchase of items such as improved
cook-stoves and mini-briquettes. All production, distribution and maintenance
is carried out under the local money system set up in each integrated
development project area. Briquette production, for example, is organised at well-commission
level, in areas serving about 350 families. Formal money transport costs are
eliminated.
2.g) Schematic
drawing of a business plan for a CDM
cook-stove project under integrated development projects.
Cook-stoves projects in
integrated development projects are designed to fall under the type iii)
small-scale CDM projects provided for under par. 6 c) of decision 17/CP.7 covering “other
project activities that both reduce anthropogenic emissions by sources and
directly emit less than 60 kilotonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent
annually”. (17/CP.7, paragraph 6(c) as
amended by 1/CMP.2, paragraph 28).
A proposed business plan for a
CDM cook-stove project under integrated
development projects.
SECTION
3. GENERAL APPLICATION PROCEDURES.
3.a)
Some specific issues to be faced when applying the CDM mechanism to integrated
development projects.
01. Integrated development
projects cover all structures and services needed for a good quality of life
for all in each given project area. Afforestation/reforestation initiatives and
the use of improved cooking stoves and of locally-made mini-briquettes for them
are activities carried out under the local money system set up in each project
area. Proceeds from the CER applications would be used to finance the
formal-money costs of the projects and not directly related to the improved
cooking stoves and mini-briquettes and other facilities themselves. The formal
money costs of the projects are used to finance a wide range of services
guaranteeing a good quality of life to all the inhabitants of each project
area.
02. Why can’t a
concept of agreed default values be introduced as methodology, so as to avoid complicated
compliance and expensive monitoring activities altogether? Projects
are in least-developed countries and would be exempt from registration and
adaptation fees. The problem is how to get compliance costs down to a
reasonable level, or eliminate the DOE altogether (???). Could this be done on
the basis of a standard convention, either with a DOE or with the EB
itself, given that all integrated development projects are more or less
the same size with similar characteristics ? Integrated development projects
are in the world's poorest areas where the rate of ecological degradation
is highest. Some 2500 integrated development projects are needed to
cover West- and Central Africa (excluding
03. How exactly can it be proved
that bio-mass reductions achieved are reductions of non-renewable biomass?
04. How exactly, can one
“prove” that carbon savings can only be obtained where carbon finance is made
available ? Under the CDM mechanism, it must be shown that the claimed energy
savings would not have been possible without applying the CDM mechanism. They
must therefore be additional to any savings which would have
taken place through the application of laws, national projects and similar
which would normally be financed through other sources. This is called additionality. Proof of additionality is often the most difficult
part of a CDM application. A Project is considered additional if, when it is
compared with other investment possibilities, it is either “financially
unattractive” or would meet insurmountable barriers for execution if carbon
credits were not made available. The project should not be based on any common
practices in the project area and may often have special features making it
risky for investors.
3.b)
Definition of renewable biomass.
Renewable
biomass was defined for the purposes of the
Biomass is “renewable”
if it meets any
one of
five conditions :
01. The biomass comes from
forests defined as such by the country in question. The area must remain a
forest, be free from loss of carbon stocks and be sustainably managed.
02. The biomass is woody
biomass coming
from cropland and/or grasslands. The areas must remain crop and/or grasslands
(or returned to forests), be free from loss of carbon stocks and be sustainably
managed.
03. The biomass is
non-woody biomass coming
from cropland and/or grasslands. The areas must remain crop and/or grasslands
(or returned to forests), be free from loss of carbon stocks and be sustainably
managed.
04. The biomass is a biomass
residue where
there is no reduction in carbon pools. This means that if dead wood is already
being systematically collected from a forest
before the CDM project starts, then its use after
the CDM starts is considered
renewable as there is no decrease in carbon stocks there. If dead wood is not
being systematically collected from a forest before the CDM project starts, dead
wood biomass extracted from the forest after the CDM project starts is non-renewable,
because the extracted
bio-mass would result in a decrease of carbon stocks there.
05. The bio-mass is the non-fossil fraction of industrial or
municipal waste.
By implication, any other biomass
is non-renewable.
In the case of fire-wood for
cook-stoves factors indicating that the wood is non-renewable include aspects
such as variations (increases) in the time women and girls spend fetching wood,
increases in the price of fire-wood, increase in the use of non-woody fuels,
visible on-going reduction in the size of woodlands and forests. If any two of
the factors apply, the wood is considered to be non-renewable.
3.c)
Approval of projects by the Designated National Authority (DNA).
Each duly prepared project
has to receive a letter of approval from a Designated National Authority
confirming that the project activity contributes to the sustainable development
of the country concerned. The DNA for any given country can be found at the list of designated national authorities at the
CDM website of the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change. Note that on
9th November 2010, 130 of the 191 countries that have ratified the
Kyoto Protocol had less than 10 CDM applications. Of these, 50 countries had
1-9 projects, 53 countries with a DNA office had no applications, and 27 had no
DNA office at all.
SECTION 4
: SOME MATERIAL SPECIFIC TO SMALL CDM COOK-STOVE INITIATIVES.
4.a)
Introduction.
Cook-stoves for integrated
development projects are locally made in the project areas themselves from
gypsum composites. The material used is inert and 100% ecological. Used and
broken items can be returned to the local factories and recycled there to make
new products. Production is carried out under the local money systems set up in
each project area.
Guide.
Carbon Markets for Improved
Cooking Stoves : A GTZ guide for project operators,
Blunck and others , 3rd revised edition, GTZ-Hera, Eschborn,
February 2010, offers a general introduction to the subject.
Methodologies specific to
cook-stove projects.
CDM projects :
AMS II.G Small-scale “Efficiency measures in thermal
applications of non-renewable biomass” with its accompanying “clarification on the
determination of savings in SMS II.G”.
CDM projects :
A CDM application in 2009 on biomass residues as the fuel
source for individual stoves complete with proposed new base-line and
monitoring methodologies relates to an actual project in
Gold standard projects
: Methodology for Improved
Cook-stoves and Kitchen Regimes V.01 by Climate Care for the Gold
Standard Foundation,
4.b)
Determining existing cooker user groups.
01. Accurate identification
of the non-renewable part of bio-mass (or of other
fuels) traditionally used for cooking purposes is at the heart of CDM
cook-stove projects. The weight in tons of non-renewable
biomass saved by the introduction of high-efficiency stoves multiplied by its
carbon-dioxide conversion factor to produce a weight in tons of carbon-dioxide
emissions is what determines the number of CER (Carbon Emission Reduction)
units awarded.
03. How much of each cluster
of materials is traditionally used in the project area ? How much does it cost? This is done through a
“kitchen survey” with minimum surveys of 10% of kitchens (families) with a
minimum sample of 100 where there are more than 1000 users in a cluster. In
principle, the more samples the better.
04. It must be shown which
biomass used is not offset by re-growth in the
collection area. What is the fuel collection (e.g. forest, grassland)
area? How much of it is regenerated in
forests and on grasslands on an annual basis ?
05. Calculate the
amount of non-renewable extracted woody biomass, non-woody
biomass used, and biomass
residues used
for each source area (e.g. forest, grassland).
06. Take into account
eventual lower than required use of cooking utensils and fuels. (E.g. Where there is under-nourishment ;
where is food not available; where people cannot afford to pay for fuel).
07. Can use of renewable energy in the project area
lead to increase in the use of non-renewable energy elsewhere? (This is
called “leakage” and has to be taken into account).
4.c)
Calculate base-line emissions.
01. Decide units of emission :
e.g. stove-year, kitchen-year, meal-year, product-year.
02. Groups or clusters are
formed for each of the energy sources traditionally used in each project area.
Mostly there are four categories : wood collected by hand, wood bought
commercially, charcoal, and kerosene bought commercially. All cluster groups
would then use the same new stove technology distributed only within the
project area and the same mini-briquettes distributed only within the project
area.
03. The control period for each
sample in each cluster should be for at least one week before the installation
of the new stoves with use of the mini-briquettes, and for one week thereafter.
04. Calculate the base line
emissions. These are (the non-renewable fraction of biomass
harvested times the mass of biomass consumed, multiplied by its CO2 emission
conversion factor) plus (the mass of alternative fuel consumed multiplied by
its CO2 emission conversion factor). The sum is expressed in tons of CO2.
05. Decide the percentage of
non-renewable bio-mass used in the project area.
06. Compare emissions under the
new stove regime with those under the old one(s). This is the difference in the
efficiency of the old stoves compared with the new ones. This is most commonly done by a water boiling
test.
07. Decide which type of
non-renewable fossil fuel would be used to substitute non-renewable bio-mass if
the improved cook-stoves were not introduced.
08. Choose the preferred
application period. This can be a single period of ten years, or a period of
seven years renewable twice (for a total of 21 years) subject to full review
and analysis by a Design Operational Entity (DOE) after each of the first two
seven-year periods.
4.d)
Monitoring.
01. The monitoring of CDM
projects is an expensive and complex exercise. It involves full base-line
emission reviews, usually on a two-year basis, and on-going comparison with the
original base line statistics. This is particularly onerous with small CDM
projects where on-going compliance costs have traditionally been out of
proportion with the relatively low value of the carbon credits granted.
03. Since most production
items, including improved cooking stoves, tanks, toilets are made locally under
the local money system set up in each project area, monitoring is easy because
it can be carried under the local money system . For example, the monitoring of
a stoves project can be carried out by coupling the number of stoves actually
sold to the number of locally-made mini-briquettes which serve as fuel for the
stoves distributed over any given period.
◄ Huitième bloc : Section 3 : L’analyse des
coûts et des bénéfices.
◄ Huitième
bloc : Bloc 8 : Les aspects économiques.
◄ Table matières pour le Diplôme du Développement
Intégré (Dip.Dév.Int)
«L’argent n’est pas la
clef qui ouvre la porte au marché mais la clenche qui la barre. »
Gesell Silvio, «The
Natural Economic Order »
Version anglaise révisée,
Peter Owen, Londres 1948, page 228
“Poverty is created scarcity” (La pauvreté est la privation construite)
Wahu Kaara, point 8 of the Global Call to Action Against Poverty, 58th
annual NGO Conference, United Nations, New York 7 Septembre 2005.
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